Glass Blocks; a Chicago Invention for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition.

Glass block, or glass brick, has an interesting history and connection to Chicago via two Chicago World’s Fairs and multiple Chicago based companies.

Gustave Falconnier
Glass Designer

The 1893 World's Columbian Exposition is known for introducing many things to the United States. One lesser-known first at the World's Fair showed the United States the first glass bricks made by Gustave Falconnier. 

Falconnier, an architect, Chicago city council member, prefect of Nyon, France, and a graduate of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris held many patents in the 1880s for various types of glass blocks of interesting geometric shapes.

At the Columbian Exposition, Falconnier exhibited his glass in buildings outside of the Horticultural Building, showing their potential uses in architecture and horticulture. Falconnier was given an award by the fair commission for, “a new departure in glass building.”

Despite being shown in the horticultural pavilion, the fair commission gave him a somewhat backhanded compliment, saying that, “Their adaptability for conservatories intended for plant cultivation has not yet been fully demonstrated, but for conservatory vestibules and other rural effects they are well adapted.” And finally, “In the construction of surgical, photographic, and other experimental laboratories, where extra subdued light is required, they possess great merit.”

The Northern Pavillion of the Horticultural Building and Exhibit of Hot-Houses and Summer-Houses.

Falconnier’s glass block had a flaw that prevented it from taking hold in America. Because they were blown glass, the blocks needed a hole. Even a small hole, eventually plugged up leading to fogging. Once fogged, the bricks would need to be replaced. A tall order indeed for something that is meant to be permanently put into a wall.

Glass block would get a second chance at Chicago's Century of Progress International Exposition in 1933 before it really took hold in US architecture. However, other types of architectural glass that would be formative to glass block’s future were taking shape in Chicago.

The popularization of Art Deco glass block walls came via the crowd-pleasing thirteen houses of the future displayed at the 1933–34 Chicago World’s Fair. Glass block walls gave builders an avant-garde 20th-Century sensibility that people really liked.

The Chicago World’s Fair buildings, at the time, considered the height of American modernity, influenced United States architectural design for many years thereafter. The Century of Progress which had been planned before the crash of 1929, opened in the middle of a worldwide economic crisis. Despite that fact, or perhaps because of it, the Century of Progress resolutely focused on an optimistic vision of the United States yet to come, a premise that proved to be a wise move as it attracted so many visitors that organizers kept the fair open for a second year.

Owens-Illinois exhibit at the Chicago Century of Progress International Exposition, 1933-34.

One of the Fair's most popular exhibits featured thirteen futuristic houses clustered together on the shores of Lake Michigan. Those houses, built from innovative construction materials and with several examples clearly paying homage to the European “International Style” or the colloquial “Streamline Moderne,” turned out to be a crowd-pleaser. 

Few fairgoers actually contemplated living in homes like George Fred Keck’s Glass House, a three-story, glass-clad, polygonal tower suspended from a central pole that clearly owed a lot to Le Corbusier’s idea of the house as a “machine for living,” but most attendees marveled at the technology displayed within and without. 

Keck’s design, which the fair billed as the “House of Tomorrow,” made the June 1933 cover of Popular Mechanics.

Keck’s house controlled its own climate via central systems and sealed windows. It included not only a garage for the car but a hanger for the family plane. Keck’s design, which the fair billed as the “House of Tomorrow,” made the June 1933 cover of Popular Mechanics. The idea of an “automatic” house that heated and cooled itself, rotated to face the sun, and opened its own Venetian blinds caught the fancy of fairgoers. It likewise influenced architects throughout the United States in the subsequent years before World War II. Bits and pieces of the fair’s dramatic architecture showed up on the cultural periphery. 

Compiled by Dr. Neil Gale, Ph.D.

How The King and His Court Softball Team got Started.

It all began in 1946. Eddie Feigner had been pitching in the Green Pea League of Walla Walla Valley, Washington. He pitched for Kilburg's Grocery store. During one game, Feigner had easily beaten a team from Oregon 33-0. After the game was over, many of the players gathered at a tavern. The manager walked past Feigner at the tavern and made a nasty comment about Feigner's pitching ability. Feigner yelled that he could beat any team that the manager could put together with just a catcher. The manager challenged Feigner to prove it. Feigner agreed, and the only stipulation was that Feigner needed four players to bat in case the bases were loaded. The player's Feigner chose for his team were people he'd known since fourth grade. The manager's team was a prison team made of convicts. Eddie Feigner was still anxious to play.

1956

The first game for the King and His Court took place behind the barbed wire and high walls of a prison. Eddie Feigner pitched a perfect game. He struck out every batter he faced with two exceptions: One failed when he tried to bunt the ball, and the other hit a grounder to the first basemen. The four players of the King and His Court easily beat the nine-player prison team 7-0. The rest is now history.

Eddie Feigner had thrown a 12-inch softball harder than any major league pitcher has ever thrown a baseball. His underhand fastball was once timed at 114 MPH. The fastest documented pitch ever thrown by a major league pitcher is Aroldis Chapman. As of 2018, Chapman owned the record for the fastest pitch ever officially clocked at 105.1 MPH for the New York Yankees.

Compiled by Neil Gale, Ph.D.

President Ronald Reagan is turned into a Muppet in 1988.

Ronald Wilson Reagan (1911-2004) was born in Tampico, Illinois on February 6, 1911. The family moved to Chicago, then to Galesburg, Illinois, and in 1937 moved to California.

Reagan signed a seven-year contract with Warner Bros. He spent the first few years of his Hollywood career in the "B film" unit, where, Reagan joked, the producers "didn't want them good, they wanted them Thursday." His first screen credit was the starring role in the 1937 movie Love Is on the Air, and by the end of 1939, he had already appeared in 19 films. In 1938 he starred alongside Jane Wyman in Brother Rat. They married in 1940, having a child, Maureen, and adopting a son, Michael, but the marriage ended in divorce in 1949. Warner Bros. "Kings Row" starring Ronald Reagan was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture in 1943.

After the outbreak of WWII (1939-1945), Reagan, an officer in the Army Reserve, was ordered to active duty in April 1942. He was assigned to the First Motion Picture Unit (officially, the 18th AAF Base Unit) in Culver City, California. In January 1943, he was sent to the Provisional Task Force Show Production Unit of "This Is The Army" at Burbank, California, then he returned to the First Motion Picture Unit. He acted and narrated military training films such as Recognition of the Japanese Zero Fighter and Beyond the Line of Duty which later won the Academy Award for Best Short film. He returned to acting after the war.

In 1952, he married fellow actress Nancy Davis.

When his film roles began to dwindle in the mid-1950s, Reagan turned to television, where he hosted and acted in a number of programs, most notably hosting the General Electric Theater for eight years on CBS. 

Ronald Reagan was the host of General Electric Theater.

He acted or narrated in 71 films and worked in 17 television shows, including hosting 235 teleplays and acted in 35 episodes of General Electric Theater, and acted in 8 episodes of Death Valley Days in 1964-1965.

Reagan retired from acting in 1965, and he became active in Republican politics, being elected as the Governor of California serving from 1967 to 1975, and later as the 40th President of the United States from 1981 to 1989.

President, Ronald Reagan referenced Sesame Street in a November 14, 1985, televised speech prior to the Geneva Summit where he would meet with Mikhail Gorbachev to discuss relations between the United States and the Soviet Union. Expressing a desire for Americans and Soviets to begin better relations amidst Cold War conditions, Reagan said, "Imagine if people in our nation could see the Bolshoi Ballet again, while Soviet citizens could see American plays and hear [music] groups like the Beach Boys. And how about Soviet children watching Sesame Street?" 

Kermit The Frog in a photoshopped picture with Nancy and Ronald Reagan as seen in The Muppets.

The remark prompted a response from Children's Television Workshop (CTW) Fran Kaufman, "There have been no discussions or negotiations about the series going there. But we're hoping to do a special from the Soviet Union." A co-production with Russia would not happen until eleven years later with the launch of Ulitsa Sezam. Ulitsa Sezam was the Russian co-production of Sesame Street. The series first aired on October 22, 1996, with the second rerun in 1999, the third rerun in 2003, and the fourth and last rerun in 2006.

In the Muppet episode 2478 which aired on May 4, 1988, of season 19 (1987-1988), Ronald Reagan makes a cameo appearance as a Muppet.

The Muppet "Forgetful" imagines meeting a jelly bean-loving President.

Compiled by Neil Gale, Ph.D.

How to Make a Spoon to Eat from a Plastic Cup.

A yogurt cup or a cup of fruit is a good, healthy snack. The worst thing is when you realize that you forgot to take or bring a spoon. Luckily, there’s a makeshift option to solve that problem. The lids on these plastic cups are usually sturdy enough for you to make a spoon. Twist the lid into the right shape and enjoy your snack.

How to use a condiment cup properly.

If you like ketchup or mustard or some other condiment where you self-serve your own in these little cups at fast-food restaurants, there’s hardly enough room for very much of the stuff, and it's a hassle trying to squeezing your food in there... until you open the cup up.

How 45 RPM Records Changed Music Forever.

The first records were on cylinders, the earliest of which were made by the inventor of the first ‘Phonograph’, Thomas Alva Edison in 1877. Attempts had been made of ‘recording’ sound much earlier than this, but none were capable of reproducing the human voice.

A 19th-century illustration of the first phonograph, devised in 1877 by US inventor Thomas Edison. It both recorded and recreated sounds using a foil-wrapped cylinder (center). A sound receiver (round) rested lightly on the foil by a needle (not seen). Sound waves made the receiver vibrate, leaving a trace on the foil as the cylinder was turned with the handle at right. The recorded sound could then be recreated by attaching the sound horn (upper right) to the receiver, adjusting the position of the needle to the start of the trace, and rotating the cylinder. Distorted but recognizable sounds were produced.

By 1887, another American, Emile Berliner (a German immigrant to the U.S.) filed a patent for a recording system based on a flat disc instead of a cylinder. This was a very significant development because the new discs were much easier to mass-produce than the cylinders that they replaced. This was important in making the technology available to a wide market.

On November 8, 1887, Emile Berliner, a German immigrant working in Washington D.C., patented a successful system for sound recording. Berliner was the first inventor to stop recording on cylinders and start recording on flat disks or records. The first records were made of glass. They were then made using zinc and eventually plastic. A spiral groove with sound information was etched into the flat record. To play sounds and music, the record was rotated on the gramophone. The "arm" of the gramophone held a needle that read the grooves in the record by vibration and transmitted the information to the gramophone speaker.

By the turn of the 20th century, the industry had begun to settle on a diameter of 10 inches for the new format. The rotational speed varied somewhat from one manufacturer to another, but most turned at between 75 and 80 revolutions per minute (RPM) and most ‘Gramophone’ machines were capable of some adjustment. The name ‘Gramophone’ began as a Trademark for Berliner’s new invention, but Europeans adopted it as generic while Americans continued to use the term ‘Phonograph.’ 

Emile Berliner's Gramophone. circa 1910

One popular theory for the choice of 78 RPM was chosen as the standard because of the introduction of the electrically powered synchronous turntable motor in 1925, which ran at 3,600 RPM with a 46:1 gear ratio, resulting in a rotation speed of 78.26 RPM. It is far more likely that a speed of around 78 RPM simply proved the best compromise from empirical results with the materials and technology available at the time.

Various materials were used for manufacturing the earliest discs, but shellac (a resin made from the secretions of the lac insect) was found to be the best. Shellac is a natural thermoplastic, being soft and flowing when heated, but rigid and hard-wearing at room temperature. Usually, a fine clay or other filler was added to the ‘mix’. However, by the 1930s the natural shellac began to be replaced by equivalent synthetic resins.

All of the earliest 78 RPM recordings were single-sided, but double-sided recordings were introduced first in Europe by the Columbia company. By 1923, double-sided recordings had become the norm on both sides of the Atlantic.

The 78 RPM disc reigned supreme as the accepted recording medium for many years despite its tendency to break easily and the fact that longer works could not be listened to without breaks for disc changes (at 5-minute intervals for 12-inch discs).

In 1948 the Columbia company had perfected a 12-inch Long Playing (LP) Vinyl disc. Spinning at 33⅓ RPM the new format could play up to 25 minutes per side. This new record medium also had a much lower level of surface noise than did its older shellac cousin. However, Columbia’s big rival, RCA Victor then produced the seven-inch 45 RPM vinyl disc that could hold as much sound as the 12-inch 78 RPM discs they were to replace but were much smaller, more attractive, and cost less to produce.

RCA came up with the number 45 from taking 78 and subtracting Columbia’s new 33 RPM format speed, which equaled 45. 

Around September of 1948, William Paley, at CBS had offered RCA’s David Sarnoff the rights to the 33⅓ technology at no cost because it would help boost 33⅓ format record sales for all. Sarnoff thanked Paley and told him he would think about it, but RCA had already perfected it’s secret 45 RPM project. Paley was shocked and more than a bit miffed when RCA rolled out their own 45s a few months later.

Record companies and consumers alike faced an uncertain future as to which format would survive. The two systems directly competed with each other to replace 78 RPM records, bewildering consumers, and causing a drop in record sales.

In 1949 Capitol, and Decca started issuing the new LP format, and RCA relented and issued its first LPs in January of 1950.

On a personal note: I owned a kick-ass component hi-fi stereo system in the 1970s and 80s. I would buy virgin vinyl, high-fidelity, albums whenever available (they cost a lot more). The largest selection of these Hi-Fi and Quaraphonic albums was at Rolling Stones Records in Norridge, Illinois. I bought Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon in high-fidelity. I heard notes and accompanying instruments I never heard on the radio or listening to a mass-produced vinyl record.

Pink Floyd's Dark Side of the Moon in High-Fidelity on White Virgin Vinyl.

RCA had announced the new format and introduced the record player in January of 1949, but it was months later until there was a use for it. The first 45, was released on March 31, 1949; it was the RCA Victor 45 label’s “Texarkana Baby” flip-side “Bouquet of Roses” by Eddy Arnold.

RCA Victor 45  - Eddy Arnold, Texarkana Baby (1949)

On May 7, 1949, the first 45 RPM record hit the billboard charts. The song was “You’re Adorable” by Perry Como. The next week, the year’s biggest 45 RPM hit appeared on the Billboard charts; "Riders In The Sky” by Vaughn Monroe and his Orchestra.

'A' - You’re Adorable, by Perry Como,

with the Fontane Sisters, Orchestra. (1949)

Vaughn Monroe & his Orchestra

Riders In The Sky (A Cowboy Legend) (1949)

The 45 RPM was gaining in popularity, and Columbia issued its first 45 in February of 1951. The years from 1949 to 1951 were referred to as “the war of the speeds” years.

Soon other record companies saw the mass consumer appeal the new 45-format allowed, and by 1954 more than 200 million 45s had been sold at an average cost of 69¢ ($6.75 today).

Some record players had four speeds, which included 16⅔ RPM, beginning in 1953. Because most, but not all, 16s had big holes and were 7-inches in diameter many of them were mistaken for 45 RPMs, and, at that size, the speed allowed for up to 20 minutes of playing time per side. However, there was no true standard size and they were also manufactured in 9, 10, and 12-inch diameter, and these larger records played even longer. Just like the other speeds and formats 16s could be played one record at a time or stacked on a changer for continuous play.

So why didn't 16 RPMs catch on? At 16 RPM records were too slow for proper high fidelity sound, so they were not often used for music. They were mostly used as "talking books." Radio stations often used the discs for pre-recorded radio shows containing interviews, dramas, and documentaries. The hard to find 16s were manufactured for commercial use. 

Chrysler Corporation created Highway Hi-Fi, an audio format that enabled the 7-inch 16⅔ RPM records to be played in their cars from 1956 to 1958. The system employed a sapphire stylus with a ceramic pick up on a turntable that was installed below the instrument panel.

It took many years for the 78 to disappear because the new vinyl records needed new equipment on which to play them, but the two new vinyl formats were to dominate the recorded music industry until the advent of the digital compact disc (CD) in 1982. Even then, vinyl would take much longer to fall into oblivion than 78s did when vinyl recordings first appeared.

The 45 RPM records years of greatest success began with the onset of rock and roll. The new 7-inch format was favored by the young and in the UK sales of 45s overtook 78s early in 1958 as rock and roll established a boom in record sales. During the next few years, the UK was to become a major source of popular recorded music with the advent of British 'beat' groups which were exemplified in the 'Beatles'. 

This was the 'golden era' for the 45. Although sales of popular music were to grow dramatically during the following decades, buyers gradually transferred their purchases to the 12-inch LP as their affluence grew. Indeed, by the end of the 1960s sales of the 45 had even begun to decline. During the early years of the Beatles, a record would need to sell in excess of 750,000 copies to reach the coveted number 1 chart position. Such was the decline in this part of the market that by the 1970s only 150,000 copies could achieve the same result.

Vinyl records making a comeback after 30 years of being behind CDs. This trend has built up slowly. By July 2019, vinyl records generated $224.1 million selling 8.6 million units, opposed to CD’s which had made $247.9 million on 18.6 million units. 

Throughout its lifespan, vinyl has faced numerous challengers for the top spot for auditory medium, from cassettes to digital. The key driving force behind the resurgence is social media. Back in the day, you could show your friends your record collection, now you can show the whole world.

Compiled by Neil Gale, Ph.D.

Who remembers any of these coin-operated rides?

Rockets, boats, cars, motorcycles, and animals were all very popular coin-operated rides from the 1950s and 60s. Forty great photographs. Which ones did you ride?

Compiled by Neil Gale, Ph.D.